Can Parental Involvement be promoted effectively

Can p arental Involvement be promoted potentlyThis palingenesis aims to contemplate some of the fundamental deals that extremity to be addressed in order for rails to promote PI efficaciously. It starts by placing PI deep down a political and historical setting. It then discusses the difficulty in be PI and how differing perceptions might actu exclusivelyy pose as a barrier to promoting it marrowively in aims. The review goes on to explore twain theories/ mock ups of PI (Epstein, Hoover-Dempsey Sandler) which are thought to merit initiateicular ingestation in terms of rails developing a framework conducive to the efficient onward motion of PI. Communication is to a fault discussed in order to highlight some of the basic issues in take aims surrounding this res publica and some of the strategies that might enhance it.The review concludes that some of the language associated with PI stooge be ambiguous and therefore problematic due to the differing perceptions of me aning. It is important for schools, names and pupils to all agree on a rendering of terms and this is presumable to be unique to every school. It is in every case suggested that in order for schools to promote participation effectively, it is best to throw a framework in place which takes account of sociological and psychological featureors regarding the agencies involved. The theories/models of Epstein and Hoover-Dempsey provide white plagueful tools for schools in developing an individualised framework designed to accommodate the various dimensions associated with PI, including those advocated by the Scottish Government. However, care has to be interpreted so that frameworks do not fail too pre-occupied with the goals of the school at the expense of the necessarily of pupils and parents.Successful PI depends largely on the level and suit of talk between schools and homes. If schools do not seek to utilise strategies which en fit deeper two way communication with parents then it is unlikely that any attempts to promote it give be effective in the long term.RationaleThe division between home and school was a very clear superstar, marked symbolically by the white line in the playground which parents were not expected to cross (Edwards Redfern, 1988, p.11).The white line symbolising a division between home and school is no longer visible in playgrounds, but does this legacy live on through what could be interpreted as a lack of inscription in schools towards building solid working relationships with all parents?The benefits of Parental Involvement(PI) in pedagogy are widely recognised and there is now consensus regarding a marry between the higher up and positive assimilator achievement (Desforges Abouchaar, 2003), with home participation in particular thought to have the greatest touch on (Desforges Abouchaar, 2003, Harris Goodall, 2007). Nevertheless, accounting for this knowledge, it could be verbalize that many schools still grapple when it comes to creating and sustaining an environment which prove parents whole step part of the school community.Having experienced some clip in schools as twain parent and teacher, I have observed the difficulties a school faces when trying to promote the interlocking of parents in school life, as well as the difficulties parents shadow face when trying to become accepted as part of the school community. I was a member of a parent school federation for two grades within my childrens ancient school. Six was the highest number of parent members at any one time out of a school that had a jog of 350 children. I am in any case now a member of the Parent Council in my childrens secondary school and there are currently only heptad parent members out of a school with a roll of 750 children. Although it is acknowledged that creation involved in ones childs nurture does not have to include a presence in the categorizeroom or being a member of a formal body, the above obse rvations might make some question how effective schools are at promoting PI and if there is, in prevalent, a lack of real commitment or understanding at a basic level, towards promoting and embedding it in substantial school practice.My personal experiences in schools as both parent and student teacher have served to fuel my interest within this area of education. thence my involvement in my own childrens education has played a major factor in constituent me find the confidence to return to higher education and embark on a teaching career. I have experienced firsthand how involving parents place be mutually beneficial for all concerned. I swear that my re anticipate into this area will further my own professional development by providing me with insight and knowledge for maintaining positive relationships with all parents as well as insight into how involvement can be promoted most effectively in primary schools.Introduction and MethodologyResearch, Government legislation and accountability are for sure some of the reasons why PI can no longer be regarded as token gesture and it could be state that schools are well familiar on appropriate strategies for promoting it. Despite this, many still appear to struggle when it comes to developing and sustaining meaningful PI in practice as well as policy. Consequently, this raises the question How can Parental Involvement be promoted effectively in primary schools?Within contemporary education there is an understanding that the word parent is taken to mean any person who has primary responsibility regarding the care of a child not necessarily the natural parents. (Education trifle 1996).The above definition will therefore accommodate the word parent where utilize in this penning.The Scottish Government indicates a distinction between PI at school and PI at home and gives recognition to the fact that successful involvement is dependent on effective relationships between homes and schools (Scottish Executive 2006 SEED, 2006). For the purpose of this paper, the effective promotion of PI will therefore be taken to mean that schools maintain a degree of success in building meaningful relationships with parents whilst encouraging them to become involved in their childrens education both at school and at home.Accounting for demographics, socio-economic factors, cultural ends and individuality, what might be considered effective for one school promoting the involvement of parents might not be for another. Indeed it could be said that to apply a one size fits all approach is tantamount to denying children the right to be treated as individuals. Individual children have individual parents after all (Crozier, 2001). However, this review is based on the premise that there are basic matters relating to PI which are common to all schools and it is only by initially addressing such(prenominal) plantational matters that schools can begin to promote it effectively.The following review endeavours to give an insight into the above by highlighting various definitions and dimensions of PI, examining two influential theories and models, as well as exploring some of the issues surrounding communication. Some contemplation will as well be given to addressing these issues in practice. Any literary productions that did not indicate relative information on the above was duly disregarded.The paper is informed by the review of selected national and international literature including books, government documents, government policies, research papers and reports, previous literature reviews, and academic journal articles accessed via Athens. The literature has been sourced from libraries, internet searches, and searching databases such as ERIC, Informaworld and Emerald. Key words or phrases aimd wereParental involvementParental engagementParent school partnershipsPerceptionsHome school communication acknowledgment lists from relevant articles and books were also used to help refine sear ches and identify key experts and theorists within this electron orbit. Two experts whose names were recurring features in almost every search and reference list were the Americans, Epstein and Hoover-Dempsey. Their work was therefore probed further for this paper and it was decided it was applicable and indeed appeared to have been influential within the current Scottish PI background. Crozier was also identified as a notable British act.Apart from outlining a history of PI, it was the intention to keep any literature as current as possible. However, one must account for the fact that there appears to have been a surge in the amount of interest and theories on PI during the late 1980s 1990s and as a consequence, this is the era where some of the important work regarding this area lies. Some of the theories and work model forward during this time still hold strong. Specifically, Epstein and Hoover-Dempsey appear to be continually referred to in even the most recent of literatur e. It has therefore been considered justifiable to include relevant literature, where appropriate, that may kick the bucket the recommended 10 year threshold.Parental Involvement A Historical ContextParental involvement within education has been emerging since the untimely twentieth century. Margaret McMillan, a Christian socialist, born in America to Scottish parents, was one of the first to highlight the grandness of parental influence within education, especially in the early years (Fitzgerald, 2004).In the United Kingdom, PI was first given emphasis as a possible factor in the improvement of primary education by Lady Plowden (Fitzgerald, 2004). Her report was written on the basis of a review commissioned by the Central Advisory Council for Education in the 1960s, relating to children and their primary schools. In it, she set out numerous recommendations for enhancing education in England. For instance, she advocated that the individual child should be at the heart of an educat ion system that promotes creativity and spontaneity. She also suggested that improving the relationship between parents and schools was a key element for progression (Central Advisory Council for Education, 1967). Although criticised by many at the time (Gillard, 2004), Browne suggests that this report was nookie many of the aspects of PI which are still evident today. For example, school reports, choice regarding the schools that parents send their children to, parents evenings, PTAs (now replaced by parent forums and councils in some countries) and school open geezerhood are all still common place (Browne Haylock, 2004). It could be said that many elements of her report appear to be evident today guidance on the new Scottish Curriculum for Excellence also emphasises creativity, the importance of educating the individual child as a whole and the need for parents to be part of this mathematical operation (Scottish Government, 2008).On a social level, the 1980s saw a shift within Western culture between professionals and everyday large number. This resulted in the emergence of parents as consumers in education and schools were therefore destined to become accountable to parents as well as governments and local authorities. (Merttens et al., 1996).This is certain to have contributed towards the rising status of PI in Britain during the 1980s. However, on an educational level, Brown Haylock (2004) cite several research reports, within the area of reading specifically, as having a significant jolt on attitudes towards PI at this time. Some of these reports include the Haringey Project (Tizard et al., 1982 cited in Brown Haylock, 2004)) and the Belfield Reading Project (Hannon Jackson 1987 cited in Brown Haylock, 2004). Both these reports (and similar studies) prove that childrens reading achievement and motivation in school were likely to be higher when parents were involved in reading to their children as well as helping with reading at home. Research s uch as this has ensured that the PI movement has been gaining momentum over the past few decades, helped by the agreement of Governments regarding the benefits associated with it. Parents in Scotland can also expect to be consulted as part of HMIE school inspections.International and National PolicyRecent government strategies aimed at improving education in many countries are a reflection of how important PI is now perceived to be internationally. For example, Americas No Child Left Behind Act NCLB highlights beef up partnerships between schools and parents as a key component in its strategic plan to improve education ( US department of Education, 2001) as does The Schooling dodge in New Zealand (Ministry of Education, 2005). The same year also saw the UK government release the white paper Higher Standards, Better Schools for All. It too emphasised the importance of schools communicating with parents (Her Majestys Government, 2005). Focusing on the Scottish context, this was just ahead of Scotlands Scottish Schools (Parental Involvement) Act 2006 which made it a legal responsibility of every education consent in Scotland to promote the involvement of parents in the education of their children (Scottish Executive, 2006).This act links to and builds on many other Scottish legislative policies. For example The standards in Scotlands Schools Act (SEED 2000) and Education, (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 (Seed 2004) also give recognition to the important role parents can play in their childrens education.What is Parental Involvement?Parental involvement is a phrase that is generally used when referring to the role parents play in their childrens education. There appears to be no universal definition. It can mean different things to different people and this in itself may prove problematic for research and implementation. The current Scottish Government guidelines intonate that PI should include 3 specific dimensions Learning at home, Home/ school partnership, and Parental representation (Scottish Executive, 2006). Learning at home covers strategies to help parents to support their childrens learning and development at home. Home/school partnership is close promoting the idea of education being a shared responsibility and encouraging parents to engage with their childs school and education, and Parental representation is about ensuring that the views of parents are put forward and considered i.e. parent forums and councils (Scottish Executive, 2006).Harris Goodall (2007) argue that the phrase Parental Involvement constitutes little value in terms of helping improve education and raise achievement. They use the phrase Parental Engagement (PE) and see this as being distinct from involvement. They make the point that Parental involvement can encompass a whole range of activities with or within the school, but if they are not directly connected to learning then they will have little impact on pupil achievement (Harris G oodall, 2007, p.6).If promoting PI effectively in schools were to be defined by the measurement of how successful it can be in improving student achievement alone then this point might be indisputable. However, as pointed out in Crozier (2000), it is a complex concept involving relationships, behaviours, actions and attitudes therefore promoting it effectively in schools surely must take account of all 4 of the above. Although PI as defined by Harris Goodall may have little effect on raising student achievement (which is likely to be a desired result in most schools), they do concede that getting parents into the school is an important first step towards building positive relationships between the two parties (Harris Goodall, 2007). PI will therefore continue to be the general term used in this paper.Parents as PartnersMuch is made of the word partnership when involving parents in education. The Scottish Government, along with many other countries, advocates that schools should em brace parents as partners. However, one also has to be careful about the meaning of this word (Katyal Evers, 2007 Crozier, 2000 Crozier Reay, 2005). For some, the word partnership might suggest equal responsibility between parent and teacher regarding the education of children. This could be off- putting for parents they may feel they lack the confidence and knowledge to assume such a role. For others partnership could suggest more government agency to parents and this could be off -putting for teachers they might feel that their professional status is under threat in some way (Crozier, 2000).Perhaps the definition of partnership suggested by Armstrong (1995) cited in Hodge Runswick-Cole (2008, p 638) is one for schools to consider within the context of promoting PI. Armstrong suggests that partnership should imply Mutual respect, complimentary expertise and a willingness to learn from each other. This seems to capture the philia that teachers are experts in education and pare nts are experts in their own children.In summary, the literature examined above appears to highlight ambiguity within some of the language associated with PI. This could mayhap be detrimental to any efforts to promote it effectively. A heart common to all schools might be individual establishments need to think carefully about how they define this concept, in terms of what is legally expected of them, in terms of how it might be construed by parents and professionals, and in terms of what goals it is hoped will be achieved by promoting it.Two TheoriesThere are many theories regarding PI two in particular seem to have had major influence, remaining dominant in literature over the years. It is perhaps of no coincidence then that both appear to stand out as imploring specific relevance within the context of schools working effectively with parents. One seeks to explain parental participation mainly from a socio-ecological perspective and the other primarily from a psychological viewpo int.A sociological PerspectiveJoyce Epstein, founder and now director of The National Network of Partnership Schools and the Centre for School, Family and Community Partnerships in America, is a leading figure in the field of PI and has produced a wealth of research- based literature. Epstein appears to focus on a socio-ecological approach which has links to Bronfenbrenners meso-system relating to ecological theory and the interrelationships between children, peers, family and school (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, cited in Doherty Hughes, 2009). She argues that social club has overlapping spheres of influence connected to education. These overlapping spheres of influence are within schools, families and communities (Epstein et al 2002). She puts forward the term school, family and community partnerships and emphasises the idea of education and socialisation being a shared responsibility between these 3 agencies. (Epstein et al 2002).Epstein sets out a comprehensive, multi-dimensional fram ework, highlighting six main types of PI parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, conclusiveness making, and collaborating with the community. Her book Schools, Family and Community Partnerships Your Handbook for Action- gives detailed definitions of each type and the challenges that go with them see Epstein et al. (2002) P 14-15 She suggests that categorising possible contributions in this way can help to accommodate all social circumstances, therefore allowing all parents to become involved in their childrens education (Epstein et al., 2002). On the other hand, it is unrealistic for all parents to want or be able to become involved in all six of these areas and Epstein advises schools of the need to tailor this paradigm in order to meet the individual goals and needs of the parents, pupils and schools.Epstein intonates that PI is likely to be more successful when promoted as part of a whole school initiative, in correlation with the goals of the school. For inst ance, if the goal of the school for a particular year is to improve achievement in maths, she recommends that any participation should be conducive to this goal. It could be said that this also helps to convey the message that parents are important and part of the school plan. She talks of an Action team of representatives involved in any partnership and recommends a yearly review of goals. In Scottish schools, it might make sense to try and tie this in with any existing parent councils. There is, however, research (Henderson Mapp, 2002) which shows formal PI is likely to include middle class parents, with working class parents more inclined to be involved at home. The Henderson Mapp study focused on a sample of American parents but nonetheless, these results might question the extent of which parent councils in Scotland are representative of the diversity in Scottish society. The Scottish Government has perhaps tried to address this issue by making all parents automatic members o f a Parent Forum, allowing them to approach the Parent Council at any time to raise concerns regarding school issues. However, there appears to be no studies in Scotland at the moment attempting to find out if all parents are satisfied with the Parent Forum/Council set up. This may be an area for further research within Scottish schools.This said, Epsteins theory and model appears to be consistent with Scottish Government guidelines on PI. Despite the fact that it is written by an American and therefore more likely to be aimed at American Policy, it does seem to promote the aspects involvement that have been emphasised in the Scottish Parental Involvement Act (Learning at home, Home/school partnership and Parental representation), it does give emphasis to partnerships with parents and community as advocated by CfE (Scottish Government, 2008) and it does seem to be universal to the differing goals and interpretations surrounding PI.A Psychological PerspectiveHoover- Dempsey Sandler (1997) whilst acknowledging the impact of social interactions, highlight a psychological perspective.They conducted a study into why parents become involved (or not) in their childrens education three psychological constructs are identified. The first is parents role construction this takes account of what parents actually believe their role should be in their childrens education, including activities and time played out with their children learning. The authors suggest that this is likely to have been influenced by parents own experiences of school and how involved their parents were. The second is parents sense of efficacy this is defined as the extent to which parents believe they can make a difference to the outcome of their childs achievement by being involved in their education. (Hoover-Dempsey Sandler, 1997) It could be argued that school-based practice can make a difference to negative attitudes by educating parents about the benefits of contributions. A study, carried out by the Scottish Executive in 2005, found that Scottish parents were happy to maintain a documentation role in their childrens education and felt that it was the teachers who should have the principal role. However, it also concluded that many parents were unaware of the potential positive impact their involvement could have on their childrens education. They may also often be unaware of schools expectations of them regarding involvement issues such as homework (Deslandes Rousseau, 2007). Perhaps if parents were more aware of their potential impact and of what schools expect, they might be inclined to want more involvement. Maybe in order to promote PI effectively, schools need to try harder in attempting to get this message across to all parents. This is consistent with be the view of Harris Goodall (2008) who bring the question Do parents know they matter? They concluded the above article by stating that effective parental involvement will not happen unless Parents know the di fference that they make, and unless schools actively reinforce that all parents matter. (Harris Goodall, 2008, p.287).Finally, the third construct identified by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler is general invitations, demands and opportunities for involvement.This relates to how parents perceive their involvement to be wanted by the school and the child. (Hoover-Dempsey Sandler, 1997). Although the attitude of parents towards the school is very important to the successful promotion of PI, schools should not underestimate the influence of the attitude of the school towards parents. They need to attempt to reach out to all parents and provide opportunities for involvement.This theory/model stresses the need to consider the beliefs and attitudes of individual parents and the roles they construct for themselves .The model was revised in 2005 and identified a need for a distinction to be made between PI at home and PI in school when considering the above. (Green et al., 2007).The Scottish Go vernment also appears to acknowledge this distinction (Scottish Executive, 2006), indicating that schools should promote involvement at home and at school, in an attempt to accommodate the roles that parents feel most comfortable with.Differing perceptionsThe above serves to highlight what might be seen as a criticism of Epsteins framework. It could be said that although her theory provides a very effectual model for participation, which promotes a multi-dimensional approach, it could be interpreted as being very school focused and perhaps does not pay comely attention to the needs and perspectives of parents or how they perceive their role within the school and their childrens education. Barge Loges (2003) Lawson, (2003) Poulou Matsagouras (2007) and Harris Goodall (2008) all give emphasis to the differences in perceptions of PI between teachers, students and parents. While most studies found that all parties agree it is important that parents are involved in childrens educati on, Lawson (2003) concluded that the ideas of what this involvement should entail were significantly different. Crucially, Barge Loges warn of the dangers of assuming that all parties are on a par as far as parents and involvement is concerned and point out that The differences among these groups expectations can influence the success of implementing parental involvement programmes, (Barges Loges, 2003, p.142).Some might say that this points to a need for individual schools to adopt a collegiality approach and engage in discussion and collaboration with parents, teachers, and students where appropriate, about the goals of the school and expectations of any PI policy or activity.CommunicationExperts agree communication is critical to the success of PI (Epstein et al. 2002 Desforges, 2003 Hughes Greenhough, 2006 Harris Goodall, 2007 Katyal Evers 2007) and there are many issues surrounding it. It is beyond the parameters of this paper to even attempt to address them all. However, while maintaining a focus on basics, it is thought the following is pertinent to promoting PI effectively in primary schools. forrader going any further, it might be useful to consider the meaning of communication. Katyal Evers (2007) acknowledge the complexity of this word with regards to interpretation. It can simply mean the giving or exchange of information, signals or messages or on a deeper level it needs to account for the effect the message has on the receiver (Berger 1995 cited in Katyal Evers, 2007, p.67). It could be said that all schools need to contemplate the latter if PI is to be promoted effectively. Superficial communication is unlikely to instil the trust or mutual respect that is mandatory for building solid relationships.Hughes Greenhough (2006) found that schools on the whole are good at giving information to parents regarding activities and events but are less inclined to ask for parental perspectives or opinions. They compare their findings with the views o f Hallgarten. He intonated that information in schools was designed to Increase the flow of information from school to home rather than promote communication between home and school (Hallgarten 2000 cited in Hughes Greenhough, 2006 p. 472).This is suggestive of a lack of regular two-way communication perhaps indicating that strategies enabling information from homes to be go byd to the school are not being considered enough. Katyal Evers (2007), point out that teachers may gain valuable information, about their pupils, by communicating with parents in informal situations. It could be said that in order for this to happen, teachers need to give parents the impression that they are approachable and available they have to be visible. Hence, a simple strategy might be for teachers to spend 5 or 10 minutes in the playground before and after school. Once or twice per week could be enough to initiate some valuable two-way communication with parents .Some schools also hold parent breakfa sts which the head or deputy attend. This also promotes 2-way communication in a more informal setting which makes the management team visible to parents.A decade into the 21st century and some might say it is imperative that schools consider the use of technology to promote communication and involve parents. Clay (2005) stresses the importance of teachers moving with the times and finding ways of integrating the use of technology to communicate with parents. She cites school web sites, interactive home-work web pages, phone calls, online learning plans and digital portfolios as ways of keeping parents informed using technology. The Scottish Government also appears to see the potential in using technology to enhance communication with parents and Her Majestys Inspectorate of Education (HMIe) identifies this as good practice within the glow ICT initiative starter pack (HMIe, 2010). Glow is a new ICT initiative in Scotland, forming a national intranet that will help with the implemen tation of Curriculum for Excellence. The pack notes indicate that the use of glow has real potential for improving home-school communication..and, most importantly, allowing greater parental involvement in their childrens learning. A future area of research within PI in Scotland could therefore involve determining the scale of impact glow has had on improving PI in schools. Of course an ethical regard would have to be that not all parents have access to a computer.As parents develop busier lifestyles, and at a time when teachers also appear to struggle to find the time to do all that needs doing, Graham-Clay (2005, p 123) cites a valid point made by Brewer Kallick, (1996) Technology also holds reassure to allow teachers communication opportunities not limited by school hours or location.Perhaps, most noteworthy for the effective promotion of PI, Graham -Clay also warns of the need to bear a human touch.ConclusionsIt is hoped that this review has offered a fundamentalist view on how PI can be promoted more effectively in schools.PI is multi-dimensional in nature and should be guided by the needs of individual schools, parents and pupils, as well as research and government legislation. What is therefore deemed to be effective for one school working with parents may not be for another. It is accepted that this review is perhaps critically limited due to the above, as well as the fact that the criteria surrounding it (set word count) did not make it possible to address the wide array of more sophisticated factors (such as cultural differences, language barriers and socio-economic status) that can impact on efforts to include parents. Whilst recognising the above, the paper took the stance that there are however, basic matters regarding PI which demonstrate commonality in all schools and it is often said that attention to the basics is the key to success.Agreement between all parties concerned, regarding a definition of PI and the roles within it, could be con sidered a fundamental issue in promoting it effectively. With regards to defining it, the review indicates that schools need to consider that it c